![]() ![]() 6, 197–219, World Sientific Publishing Company (2013) Nakagava, Ion injectors for high-intensity accelerators. Stockli., Volume and surface-enhanced ion sources, Faircloth., Ion sources for high-power hadron accelerators, Komarov, Negative Ion Sources (NIIEFA, Review OD-4, Leningrad, 1976) М.А. Ehlers, Design considerations for high-intensity negative ion sources. Valter (ed.), Electrostatic Accelerators of Charged Particles (Gosatomizdat, Moscow, 1971). Alton, Negative ion formation and processes and sources, in Electrostatic Accelerators: Fundamentals and Applications, ed. On ion source and formation ion beam, BNL 50310, 237, Brookhaven, 1971. ![]() Dudnikov, Cross sections for stripping of-1-MeV negative hydrogen ions in certain gases. Semashko, Investigation and Development of Injectors of fast ions and atoms of Hydrogen for stationary Magnetic trap, Dissertation for Doctor of Fis-Mat nauk, IAE im. Semashko, Beams of Ions and Atoms for Controlled Nuclear Fusion and Technologies (Energoatomizdat, Moscow, 1986) М. Andersen, Atomic negative ions: Structure, dynamics and collisions. Tawara, Charge changing processes in hydrogen beams. Smirnov, Negative Ions (Mc Graw-Hill, New York, 1976) ![]() Hotop, Binding energies in atomic negative ions. Mac Daniel, Collision Processes in Ionized Gases (Mir, Moscow, 1967). Messy, Negative Ions (Cambridge University Press, 1976). Smirnov, Ions and Excited Atoms in Plasma (Atomizdat, Moscow, 1974). Smirnov, Atomic Collisions and Elemental Process in Plasma (Atomizdat, Moscow, 1968). Solpiter, Quantum Mechanics of Atoms with One and Two Electrons (Fismatgis, Moscow, 1960). Heeren, Negative ion source technology, in Plasma Technology, ed. Wolf, Handbook of Ion Sources (CRC Press, Boca Raton, 1995) Forrester, Large Ion Beams (Wiley, New York, 1988)ī. Brown (ed.), The Physics and Technology of Ion Sources (Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. Zhang, Ion Sources (Springer, Switzerland AG, 1999) Gabovich, Physics and Technology of Plasma Ion Sources (Atomizdat, Moscow, 1972). Dudnikov, Development and Applications of Negative Ion Sources (Springer, Switzerland AG, 2019) Dudnikov, Negative Ion Sources (NSU, Novosibirsk, 2018). The equilibrium is reached when the number of molecules escaping from the liquid phase is the same as the number of molecules entering it.V. See įor instance, this kind of "fight" also happens with evaporation inside a closed recipient. The speed of bonds breaking and the speed of recombination "fight" one another, until they are in chemical equilibrium, that is when both speeds are the same. Note that even though H+ and OH- are naturally produced in water, they also recombine back into H2O. By the way, that is what makes both pH and pOH of water equal 7. that is: covalent bonds are breaking all the time (self-ionization), just like intermolecular bonds (evaporation). The concentration of each of these ions in pure water, at 25☌, and pressure of 1atm, is 1.0×10e−7mol/L. But, then, why no hydrogen or oxygen is observed as a product of pure water? Because water decomposes into H+ and OH- when the covalent bond breaks. Water, for example is always evaporating, even if not boiling. Yes, they can both break at the same time, it is just a matter of probability. Statistically, intermolecular bonds will break more often than covalent or ionic bonds. Intermolecular bonds break easier, but that does not mean first. ![]()
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